I remember two things about my second-grade school year. In those days before classroom computing, my homeroom was just across from the school library. I also remember something else – something less pleasant.

I was falsely accused! It was a serious offense for a second grader. The teacher said that I had littered. Horrors! She claimed that I had intentionally thrown down paper instead of… I don’t know what. I don’t remember the rest, except perhaps that I had lost some crumpled paper from my tiny back pocket.

I was caught off-guard by what was a stinging accusation for a seven-year-old child, and it is something that I will never forget.

My wife still remembers a third-grade teacher who impatiently gave her a slap on the bottom for pausing to make sure her first-grade sister was safely aboard a school bus.

I laugh at myself for still remembering my ancient slight. I reflect and realize how lucky my life has been in that the injustices I have suffered have been few and minor. Everyone has a few of these tiny scars, but some have suffered unfairness in life a million-fold greater.

TRUTH AND JUSTICE

It seems that all of us carry around a little internal scale of justice from our earliest years. If a brother or sister gets a larger slice of cake, an alarm bell rings. If a co-worker gets a raise and we don’t, another warning bell chimes.

It is both the blessing and curse of being human. Of all the animals, we spend a lot of our time and mental energy contemplating what we and others ought to do.

If the guilty are rewarded and no good deed goes unpunished, our internal scales of justice tilt, and we begin to rebel at what we perceive is wrong.

More employee issues are rooted in matters of perceived unfairness and injustice than any other. Commission and bonus policies, accountability and blame, shift and vacation schedules, workplace courtesy, and many more problems like these trace their origins back to a common theme.

If one worker is excused for being late and another is not, everyone makes a mental note. If someone receives a favorable shift or assignment for no apparent reason, a real or imagined prejudicial and personal relationship may be blamed. Even the lightest criticism can poison an attitude if the recipient feels the criticism is undeserved and unearned.

From entry-level positions up, I have always found that most people start a work environment eager to contribute. Excepting previous bad experiences that color their expectations, most workers hope and expect to be productive and to be treated fairly in the process.

There are many books about motivation and business culture. From these sources, we learn that there are many small things that a manager can do to enhance and mature positive attitudes, but there is one huge thing that is destructive unless handled properly.

There must be an unwavering commitment to transparency and consistency on what is deserved and what is earned in both real and perceived rewards and penalties.

DESERVED AND EARNED

A certain amount of conflict is inevitable. Fans of fiction know that much of the drama in stories of romance, mystery, and suspense is rooted in conflicting ideas about what is deserved and what is earned.

Dark stories tell us that people don’t always get what they deserve, and heroic adventures tell us that they sometimes do. Thrillers with courtroom confessions often find the guilty making hollow appeals to justice. “I earned that money. They had it coming to them.”

Indeed, if there was perfect agreement with and abidance by a common understanding of justice, then there would be little for the courts, the police, and the military to do.

The reality is that people will come into our workplace with differences in knowledge, understanding, maturity, and intent. A child does not earn their bed and dinner, but these are things they deserve from their parents. The adult who models their work expectations too heavily on family experiences may clash with someone from an entrepreneurial, strongly hierarchical, or class-oriented culture.

You can expect that individuals will bring expectations of privileges and entitlements based on position, rank, class, education, and need as well as merit. The challenge is to create an environment where extraneous differences can be respectfully set aside, leaving only issues pertaining to the common goal: to work productively together.

A HARMONIOUS WORKPLACE

Even though people come to the workplace with different expectations, it is still possible to create an environment in which you can earn the coveted title of tough but fair.

When someone steps up to play a new sport, they expect to have to learn new rules. In soccer, the use of hands is penalized. In basketball, traveling with the ball is not allowed.

In a new work environment, people are receptive to receiving and abiding by a work-specific set of ground rules for behavior.

You must remember, though, that money talks. “I did not pay them to be rude to customers!” said one manager. “But you did!” I reminded him. “Yesterday was payday! Didn’t they get paid?”

If a referee never calls fouls, players feel free to commit them. If there are no consequences for negative behavior, associates will assume that correct and consistent process is only a suggestion.

DALE CARNEGIE

How to Win Friends and Influence People was a salesman’s bible for many thousands in the last century. His most memorable advice was to “Never, Never Criticize.”

This advice is closely tied to the theme of this article. Many times, people experience criticism as an injustice. Coaching can be different. Coaching deals explicitly and exclusively with what an individual acknowledges they can control.

A barrage of criticism generally provokes resentment and not change. “What can I do about spilled milk? Water under the bridge? Someone else was at least partly at fault.”

You cannot help someone else clarify their thinking as to what they can and cannot control unless you are crystal clear on this distinction yourself.

Don’t forget that we are talking about is and not ought. What someone ought to be able to control somehow is not the clear and detailed thinking of a good tactical manager. A future article on the principle of Division of Labor in Decision-Making will delve deeper into this subject.

ERRORS OF KNOWLEDGE

Our earlier article on variability introduced the idea that experience should result in increased knowledge. One important take-away from this book should be several techniques for retaining and organizing that knowledge.

From the dependency diagrams to factor tables and visual documentation techniques to proper methods of organizing metrics to highlight the ideas hidden in data, I encourage you to take advantage of these as are appropriate for your situation.

It is usually inadequate to simply tell an associate some fact, policy, or other guidance as to how to perform their job. They are as likely to remember seventeen workplace rules as they are likely to accurately retain seventeen-digit part numbers.

The best pilots still use preflight checklists no matter what their level of experience. Good tactical managers should not simply rely on associates remembering everything that is important about their job.

SEX, POLITICS, AND RELIGION

Sex, politics, and religion are the original big three verboten topics during business hours. The list is a little longer today.

Although there is great pleasure in seeking out and sharing time and conversation with people who share our philosophical perspectives on life, it is still asking for trouble to open up these issues at work, unless these matters are our work. The subject of sex will inevitably come up in some form at the condom factory. It need not be discussed at the furniture plant.

Setting aside these issues in the workplace is a contract to agree to disagree. It is a respectful attitude that acknowledges the different opinions we hold regarding the earned and deserved but sets them aside for our common virtue—the desire to be productive.

GETTING “PLAYED”

If you take fair treatment of customers and associates seriously, you must be on your guard against those who play on your sense of justice.

Did you make a mistake? Did you mistreat someone, or are you being played? Unearned and deserved guilt feels exactly the same.

Your commitment to know your own mind, to fully understand what you can control and what you cannot, what others can control and cannot, and your willingness to correct your thinking when you are wrong is your only defense against getting manipulated by cynical opportunists whose ideas about justice are, shall we say, flexible.

FINAL THOUGHTS

Resist the urge to cultivate a parent-child relationship with people who report to you. This can cultivate a culture of entitlement along the lines of Judith Bardwick’s Comfort Zone.

There is an element in supervision that we call air cover. Good managers watch for and intercept pressures and events from above and from outside the team that can undermine associates’ ability to focus on their tasks. Although this feels like parenting, it is simply part of the job of a good tactical manager.

Resist the urge to characterize your management style as democracy or dictatorship. Concepts of politics do not belong in business. It is reasonable to poll associates and vote on serious matters in which they have a personal stake, but it is a mistake to call the question on every trivial matter, particularly if the result is a foregone conclusion.

Keep the distinction between perks and privileges, compensation and generosity. If you provide a free lunch to squeeze a few extra minutes of time from staff during a crisis, don’t spin it as generosity or a privilege. At best, you will fool no one. At worst, you will modify employee expectations. When free pizza lunches go away, someone will feel cheated.

I’ll never forget the restroom signs to employees in a large manufacturing plant: “We have generously provided these facilities here for your convenience.” Really?

Legalities and building codes aside, just how convenient would it be for the business if there were no facilities? A sign that said “We provide these restrooms close to your workstation so you can get back to work ASAP” would be more honest, but does the obvious really need to be said?

Copyright © 2025 Operation Improvement Inc. All rights reserved.

Waterfall Project Management

“Waterfall” project management is a style of management best suited to the assembly and integration of proven processes and skills. In residential contracting, we work from plans, measure twice and cut once.

The materials, techniques, and skills required are known quantities. The quantities of steel, concrete, wiring, plumbing, and fixtures can be estimated from the plans, and established labor ratios can be applied to quantify the human component.

The challenge in these kinds of projects is wise management of the critical path, and the ability to adapt to early and late delivery, price surprises, material defects, resource scheduling conflicts, human error, and project changes.

In “waterfall”, the project manager is given an objective expressed as performance, time, and cost and must optimize these three variables while considering project risk.

Software project management is different.

By software development, I am not referring to routine low-code/no-code projects where workflows are tweaked, data is re-coded, and BI engine reports are created. Such endeavors today, especially with the assistance of AI have almost become predictable processes.

I am talking about software development where the development team must envision and create something new – much like a writer must create a fresh story in a series of entertaining books or scripts.  They must imagine new usage cases, unintended consequences, and the product’s evolution along a future development roadmap.

A book author will often start with a conceptual sketch and prepare a rough outline of the written journey from start through exposition to conclusion. Details are filled in, usually not in the final chapter-by-chapter order, and drafts are refined until the story’s message is coherent, clear and impactful.

This kind of iterative development is a process of systematic discovery.

Iterative Development

The conceptual alternative to “waterfall” can generically be termed “iterative development,” and it is an approach that is decades old, and it predates computer technology and code creation, and has many applications outside of IT.

Fredrick Brooks, the well-known UNC computer scientist and thought leader, had some success with waterfall techniques when he redesigned the roles of a lean programming team. His original book, The Mythical Man-Month, is a classic of software development and gave us several guiding principles including: “Adding programmers to a late project will make it later.”

In subsequent editions of this book 20 years later, he explored the concept of iterative development. In simplest terms, it builds on the lean programming team model and adds iterative development constraints.

A development cycle is a short, relatively fixed time-period where an application is constructed and enhanced with only the functionality that the time budget allows. He calls this “growing a program.” This approach turns learning, discovery, and invention into a manageable process.

At each stage of development, the result is both a working product and a prototype for the next iteration. With this approach, nuances of a new language or strengths/limitations of a chosen framework of building-block functions can be explored, and adjustments can be made as necessary.

Project planning is developmental. Much like curriculum development for first, fifth, and 12th grade education, project planning has a vision, or outline, for what the product could look like at different stages of development. You can see that this lean style of iterative project management is “baked into” the DevOps and CI/CD methods and tools offered by AWS cloud services.

With either “waterfall” or “iterative” management, one wants control and desires to avoid the pitfall of the illusion of control. Project management skeptics who are aware of such illusions sometimes ask why plan at all?

I ask them to imagine productivity if we planned 100% of the time (the answer is none), and then I make the case that activity without performance-time-cost objectives will not deliver value. What is the value of the perfect wedding cake delivered a week after the wedding? What if the cake is cheap and on-time but looks and tastes awful?

Without a sense of where we are going, where we are, and an idea of how to get from here to there, the risk of failure is almost certain. A sweet spot of planning and control is somewhere in between no plan and an obsessive attempt at over-control. However, when we encounter those things we cannot control, we realize that plans must change; and that is okay.

An interesting X post had detailed criticisms of SCRUM and other recent academic attempts to build management layers on the thirty-year-old lean development framework of Dr. Brooks. The X writer did not reference The Mythical Man-Month, but the book certainly came to my mind when I read the online comments and replies.

On reflection, it also made me remember the advice: “…things I can control, the things I can’t. The wisdom to know the difference.”

© Operation Improvement Inc 2025. All rights reserved.

What is wrong with this management agreement?

Original: “The managing agency shall be paid 8% of gross revenues each month on or before the 25th.”

(Here is a hint: Look at the re-worded agreement, clarifying understanding and remove any ambiguity.)

Revised: “The managing agency shall be paid 8% of the preceding month’s gross revenues each month on or before the 25th.”

There are two activities implied in each of these two statements. (1) One month’s gross revenues shall be totaled. (2) Eight percent of the total shall be calculated and paid.

A dependency diagram would make this clear. Calculating a (prior) month’s gross income comes first, and calculation of a management fee is a dependency, but it is not simply a dependency in time!

Most people assume that dependency diagrams are flow charts or time sequence charts. They are NOT!.

Dependency Diagrams are best described as knowledge and product dependency Diagrams

Transient Products

Each process activity box in a dependency diagram could be drawn on a separate page. A resulting product could be shown for each process step, and that product could be shown as the key ingredient, or incoming product, to a subsequent step.

Instead, these transient products are typically not shown, unless a deeper level of detail is really required to understand the work. Process steps are connected one to the next, and these transient products are implied in the diagram.

In the management agreement example, the calculation of gross revenues produces a product: a dollar sum. That transient product (the dollar sum) is the input to the calculation of a percent management fee.

If a transient product is flawed, all subsequent process steps are voided!

The dependency diagram for calculating management fees reminds us that a correct percentage calculation depends on a correct sum of the previous monthly revenue. If prior months revenue calculations are incorrect, all downstream calculations are null and void.!

It is an understandable mistake to think that dependency diagrams show time sequence, but the deeper interpretation is that a bookkeeper must know the monthly revenue sum before a correct management fee can be calculated. It is in this sense that dependencies illustrate knowledge dependencies.

Dependencies In Project Management

Dependency diagrams are a essential tool in process management, but the concept of knowledge dependencies may be clearer if we draw a couple of examples from the other branch of tactical management: Project Management.

Knowledge dependencies may be clearer if we take a look at PERT chart techniques in project task scheduling.

In a systematic scheduling of tasks, task relationships are typically described as predecessor and successor tasks. Tasks are related in one of four ways: Finish-Start (FS), Start-Start (SS), Start-Finish (SF), and Finish-Finish (FF). In addition, a gap or overlap is specified as lead or lag time.

Novice schedulers just “know” that Task A (Build Forms) should happen on Monday and Tuesday, and Task B (Pour Concrete) should follow on Wednesday and Thursday.

If they use a software package, they fiddle with task dependencies and leads and lags until the two tasks appear on the calendar where they intended. This is not how these powerful tools were meant to be used.

The concrete contractors, let us say, are our most difficult to schedule workers. They have promised to bring concrete to our work site on Wednesday. That is the predecessor task. It is a bit of certainty that the rest of the schedule builds on.

Based on the knowledge that the concrete will be delivered on Wednesday, we establish a relationship with the successor task. We calculate that the building of forms to hold wet concrete must be finished before concrete is delivered on Wednesday. That is a Start-Finish relationship.

Since construction of footings is expected to be a two-day process, we determine a starting date for that task by the powerful mathematical technique known as subtraction. We work backwards on the calendar to find the Monday starting date of Task A.

The Gantt chart shows the time sequence: A precedes B. But the PERT chart preserves the knowledge dependency relationship.

On the PERT chart view, Task B (Concrete) comes first, and Task A (Forms) follows. This is because we know with some degree of certainty when concrete will be delivered, and we are planning the other tasks accordingly.

We plan because there will be change. Things will not always go according to plan. If the concrete contractors reschedule, the PERT chart and the Start-Finish dependencies in our scheduling plan remind us which tasks must be rescheduled.

In process and project management, the tactical manager’s “go-to”move is re-deployment of resources in order to accommodate change, substitute equipment and methods, and in some cases – shorten the duration of resource-driven tasks.

The dependency diagram retains a record of causality in our decision-making. “Why did we schedule form construction when we did? Because the concrete contractors go on the schedule first, and other tasks are scheduled and rescheduled accordingly.”

Critical Path

Dependencies are used sparingly in project scheduling to represent real constraints. In our example, the difficulty of scheduling concrete had an impact on at least one other task.

A prepared bed for concrete complete with forms is something that may be perishable. Perhaps we do not want that work completed and left exposed to the elements for too long before concrete is delivered. There is a definite reason to incorporate this dependency in scheduling.

Other tasks are scheduled later by analyzing available resources. The limitation of workers and equipment keeps us from tackling every task simultaneously, and a project manager will work that out in a second phase of scheduling.

For now, these tasks that are independent are left on the schedule to start ASAP (as soon as possible). Resource limitations will cause some of these to be delayed.

At this early stage of scheduling, something called a critical path emerges. It is possible to identify a sequence of tasks that determine the minimum total duration of a project.

If there are no dependencies in a project and everything is scheduled ASAP, the critical path is simply the time it takes to complete the longest task.

When product and knowledge dependencies are identified and incorporated into the schedule, a realistic timeline of the project begins to take shape.

Novice misuse of scheduling software and dependency-based scheduling often results in everything being linked into a too long critical path. This creates unrealistically long estimates of the total project duration and leads the manager to think their only means of improvement is more resources.

Proper and sparing use of dependencies and ASAP scheduling gives the tactical manager options. They can choose where and when to deploy and redeploy resources. They can lengthen non-critical tasks and shorten tasks on the critical path.

When things change, when things do not go according to plan, the most powerful tool in the tactical manager’s kit is the power to redeploy resources. A good plan establishes contingencies in advance.

The Factor Table

Dependency diagrams are not flow charts. Particularly in process management, they represent a planning of work that proceeds from certainty to certainty, from correct product to correct product.

How, then, can such a simple method for diagramming processes be made flexible enough to accommodate variability and unknowns?

Many are tempted to turn dependency diagrams into flow charts. They want to introduce decision box symbols and branching and looping lines and arrows. This is not only unnecessary; it is a mistake that will have a negative impact on the ability of a tactical team to work confidently, correctly, and consistently.

In another article, we apply dependency diagramming to work in call centers. In that call center example, our process is to greet, identify the caller, and then match the call request. Callers can call about a multitude of things.

Even if we factor the types of calls into a smaller and manageable number, how then does the manager maintain a sense of orderly correctness with a simple dependency diagram? If we decree that there are a dozen different types of calls, do we make a dozen dependency diagrams to plan and describe each process variant?

The answer is no, and the solution is something called factor tables. A discussion of factor tables deserves its own article in this series. Once mastered, you will never be tempted to turn dependency diagrams into flow charts.

© Operation Improvement Inc 2025. All rights reserved.

Shoes in the shoe store were just not selling. After a careful survey of available shoe sizes (6, 8, 10, and size 12) and customer feet (7, 9, and size 11), we happily conclude that the average shoe fits the average foot. What did we miss? Variability.

Variability

The shoe store has some control over the variability in shoe sizes when orders are placed, but tactical management of variability is much more subtle. There are things that you can control and things that you can’t. In project and process management, the inability to tell the difference makes things worse and can even end in failure.

There is an old and silly joke about the man who tells the doctor, “It hurts when I poke my finger in my eye.” The doctor, of course, says, “Well, stop doing that!” Learn how to properly manage variability.

It is often, but not always, easy to manage known causes of variation. In one copper coil winding and insertion operation, our studies revealed a one percent chance of coil failure when current was applied.

Copper coil windings varied in how tightly packed the coils were. Some were wound a little loose and some a little tighter. On average, the tightly packed copper bundle was a perfect fit into the intended machine slot.

The loose coils were problematic. About one percent had to be forced into position with the only tool available to the operator, a screwdriver! Aha! The cause of defective coils! (Details of that journey are in another article.)

The problem could have been solved far upstream by a product re-design or by re-engineering the coil insertion process, but our simple solution to eliminate this defect was tactical management of variability.

No Silver Bullet

“Surely,” many managers think, “there is a product, maybe a tool, a machine, maybe software… something I can buy that will solve my variability problems for me.”

It is axiomatic that one needs tools suited to the task at hand; but while tools can be helpful, there is only one alternative to learning about how to measure and manage variability. The alternative is to suffer through it.

In service industries, many try to punt this issue into the Information Technology department. In call centers/contact centers, staffing never seems to match demand variability, so fortunes are spent on scheduling software and overly complex routing and  load-leveling systems.

The common result is that calls are dispatched and routed in an inscrutable and unmanageable manner. Service quality suffers because calls are not relayed to the right people. (“But we bought skill-based routing!”) Caller wait times still have unacceptable peaks and valleys.

In manufacturing, parts assemblers given average-sized cylinders to be inserted in average-sized openings must fiddle with stacks of slightly under-sized and slightly over-sized “within specifications” parts. They then wonder why items that meet tolerances won’t fit together.

Without a proper understanding of variation, managers direct purchasing to tighten the tolerances and buy more expensive components, raising the cost basis of the product they want to sell.

Be Careful What You Ask For…

You may get it! One cannot apply brute force; one cannot decree that workers stop producing results that have variability. It does not work and only makes things worse. (In his Walkabout © series of books, James Abbott calls this mistake “Forced Capability”; a violation of the principle of Division of Labor in decision-making.)

One tactical manager tried to eliminate variability by decree. He told his three shift managers, “Do whatever it takes.” One shift manager performed measurably worse after the order. We called him the Good Trooper because of his story.

“Of course I’ll do what the boss said. I was in the army. I learned that when the boss says jump, you ask how high.”

The other supervisors performed as they did before the manager’s new rule. They said,

“He doesn’t understand what we can and can’t control down here, and he won’t listen. I guess whether or not I keep my job depends on chance.”

“There is a chance my variability numbers will be bad, but there is also a chance they will be good. I’ll take the credit if they are good and risk the consequence if they are bad. I know I’ll only make things worse if I don’t leave what is currently working alone.”

Manage or Re-Design

An architectural re-design of a process and re-engineering with and capital outlay (new equipment/automation) is a strategic decision. Tactical managers must be masters of variability regardless of the technology and tools employed. New equipment lets an operation make scrap faster!

Tactical management of variability is straightforward and methodical and requires five things:

• Targets. You must establish and oversee a correct operation based on what you presently know. This includes contingency plans to re-deploy resources when conditions change. (“If it rains, we will need umbrellas.”)

• Consistency. You must run that operation as consistently as possible.

• Fresh Data. You must measure and monitor variability in real time. Today’s data must be available for today’s decision-making, and not just at the end of the month.

• New Knowledge. You must learn new things – details about your operation.

• Managed Change. You must incorporate that new knowledge into a new baseline plan of correct process operations.

New Knowledge

Knowledge is power. The manager who has ten years of experience has an advantage over the one who has one year of experience repeatedly over ten years.

You can measure and report variability with statistical tools such as standard deviation and coefficient of variation, but your progress in the management of variability is measured by assessing your inventory of knowledge!

An apprentice carpenter may start with a basic inventory of three or four ideas: the hammer, the nail, the pointy end of the nail goes into the wood, and the desired flush finished result.

The skilled carpenter will know about knots in wood, the behavior of laminate materials, the risk of splitting thin strips of wood along the grain, and more.

Similarly, the experienced tactical manager should have a larger inventory of knowledge after accumulating time on the job. If you can master the skill of managing variability, you may very well accumulate your ten years of experience in a year, instead of the other way around!

Acting on New Knowledge

Some of the things you will learn will represent opportunities and some will represent risk. Some will be manageable and some will not.

Some will require new contingency plans so opportunities can be seized and not lost. Some contingencies may be provisioned to mitigate risk. Some will require a strategic response that will be beyond the scope of a tactical decision.

The important thing is to maintain a mental readiness, an awareness of the difference between the things you can control and those things that you cannot.

In another article in this series on causal analysis, we portrayed cause-effect and root-cause analysis as a potentially infinite chain of events with a decision fork in the alternatives where a human being has made a choice.

One decision fork in the analysis pursues the nature of things as far as we can until we rest our case with this conclusion: “And that’s just the way things are.”

The other decision fork terminates in human choices and actions. Of course, our past choices and actions become a given that no power in the universe can change. They are as indisputable as the fact that nails are pointy and will deflate a tire due to “the way those particular nails are”.

But we can shift our perspective on past human events and submit them to judgment and review. Why did we decide? Why did we choose? What would the outcome have been had we acted differently? Will we have the knowledge, when and where we need it, the next time a similar decision is made?

These are the questions we must ask if we are to incorporate and use new knowledge. These are the questions that highlight what, in the future, we may be able to manage and control.

© Operation Improvement Inc 2025. All rights reserved.